Because our theoretical assumptions provide the basis of our data analysis, it is important to name them here.
1. Domestic Violence Defined in Cambodian Law
Cambodian law defines domestic violence as "violence that occurs between people living in the same house and who are dependent of the household". Acts of violence included in the law are as follows:
- "Acts affecting life;
- Acts affecting physical integrity;
- Torture or cruel acts;
- Harassment causing mental/psychological, intellectual harm;
- Mental/psychological and physical harm exceeding morality and the boundaries of the law;
- Sexual aggression (including violent sex, sexual harassment and indecent exposure);
- Threats aiming at frightening, shocking; and
- Acts affecting individuality and property." (CAMBOW 2007: 8)
2. Types of Family Violence
Every family is unique, but patterns of conflict and violence can also be discerned. If we want to accurately understand when and how peace education supports family conflict transformation, we need to understand the context of family conflict and violence for the peacebuilders included in the study.
Johnson (2006) constructed a typology of domestic violence that included four categories:
Coercive Controlling Violence: indicated by controlling patterns, and includes such patterns as "intimidation; emotional abuse; isolation; minimizing, denying, and blaming; use of children; asserting male privilege; economic abuse; and coercion and threats"
Violent Resistance: violence that occurs as an act of resistance against inflicted violence. It can be done almost instinctively in the moment, or can be thought out ahead of time in response to frequent violence
Separation Instigated Violence: violence that occurs when a couple with no prior history of violence chooses to separate.The fourth category, Situational Couple Violence, was described in more detail by Kelly and Johnson (2008, 481-486). This violence is characterized as:
- “not based on a relationship dynamic of coercion and control ... and mostly arises from conflicts and arguments between partners”
- gender symmetric
- “not embedded in a relationship-wide pattern of power, coercion, and control”
- “result[ing] from situations or arguments between partners”
- resulting from “One or both partners [having] poor ability to manage their conflicts and/or poor control of anger”
- “not accompanied by a chronic pattern of controlling, intimidating, or stalking behaviors”
Typically, this type of violence occurs infrequently (Johnson 2006, 18), though it can become "chronic and severe, even homicidal" (3-4).
3. Social Indicators
We also wanted to understand the social context of the participants’ families. Walker (1999, 21) identified factors that interact to determine this wider context:
(1) gender [roles and stereotypes]Within Cambodia, patriarchal societal structure; sexual taboos; the five-tiered political structure; certain religious beliefs (e.g., common perceptions of kamma); general attitudes regarding the acceptability of violence; and migration between neighboring countries are all significant factors that can contribute to prevalence of family violence and a sense of helplessness for its victims.
(2) political structure
(3) religious beliefs
(4) attitudes toward violence in general
(5) [attitudes toward] violence toward women
(6) state-sponsored violence, such as civil conflicts and wars, and
(7) the migration within and between countries
4. Qualities of Healthy Families
There are many qualities used to define or support healthy family relationships. These qualities enable families to weather those inevitable conflicts that are a part of life in any relationship, and become even more crucial if a family is to survive a time of crisis. Some qualities of healthy families include:
- Commitment to each other as a family, and to the well-being of individual members
- Fairness among the spouses (equitable sharing, respect and support among spouses)
- Parenting that includes nurture, protection, and guidance for children
- Respect for individual differences and needs
- Trust, supported by predictability and stability in family interactions
- Flexibility in adapting to both internal and external demands of life
- Understanding and open communication between family members
- Effective problem-solving strategies, allowing for conflict resolution
- Shared life values
- Networking with larger social circles (relatives, friends, community, other social systems), thus providing resources for both physical and psycho-social support. (adapted from Peterson, 2003)
The same qualities that make up a healthy family also support and maintain them during conflict situations.
